Conventional to advanced techniques: Progress in titanium alloys for biomedical applications: Review paper

Deekshia Bhattachan; Deviprasad  M J; Bhavana Rikhari

doi:10.5599/jese.3555

Authors

Deekshia Bhattachan Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering, Dayananda Sagar University, Devarakaggalahalli, Harohalli, Kanakapura Road, Bengaluru South District - 562112, India https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1981-4261
Deviprasad M J Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering, Dayananda Sagar University, Devarakaggalahalli, Harohalli, Kanakapura Road, Bengaluru South District - 562112, IndiaDepartment of Chemistry, School of Engineering, Dayananda Sagar University, Devarakaggalahalli, Harohalli, Kanakapura Road, Bengaluru South District - 562112, India https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6663-4570
Bhavana Rikhari Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering, Dayananda Sagar University, Devarakaggalahalli, Harohalli, Kanakapura Road, Bengaluru South District - 562112, India https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8826-9941

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5599/jese.3555

Keywords:

Metallic biomaterials, implants, fabrication techniques, tribo/bio-corrosion, additive manufacturing, smart technologies

Abstract

The biocompatibility, high strength-to-weight ratio, mechanical properties, and resistance to corrosion of titanium and its alloys, making them suitable for implants. The major factors influencing titanium implant performance depends on fabrication technique, microstructure, resistance to corrosion, tribocorrosion, osseointegration and its stability. This review focuses the impact of conventional manufacturing technique such as welding, casting, powder metallurgy, forging, rolling, and extrusion and their effect on metal implants. To overcome the limitations of conventional techniques, further development of advanced manufacturing strategies capable of achieving complex geometries and tailored properties for next-generation biomedical implants. Specific focus is placed on powder bed fusion, directed energy deposition, material extrusion, binder jetting, and material jetting. The impact of processing technique on mechanical properties, microstructure, corrosion resistance and overall implant longevity is discussed. Furthermore, challenges such as the high elastic modulus of conventional Ti alloys, limited control over the strength, ductility, biocompatibility, surface degradation and tribocorrosion, and the need for adaptive and long-term implant monitoring continue to drive research toward integrated material, computational, manufacturing, and digital strategies. Emerging approaches such as high-entropy titanium alloys, artificial intelligence, machine learning, 4D printing, smart implant technologies, and digital twinning for predicting and controlling implant performance, are emphasised in this review. Their incorporation with additive manufacturing (AM) opens new possibilities for enhancing Ti implants, which can offer improved mechanical compatibility, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, personalized functionality, and consistent long-term performance.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

[1] V. Hasirci, N. Hasirci, Fundamentals of Biomaterials, Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54046-2

[2] H. A. Kishawy, A. Hosseini, Titanium and Titanium Alloys, in Machining Difficult-to- Cut Materials, Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 2019, 55-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95966-5_3

[3] L. Zhang, L. Chen, A Review on Biomedical Titanium Alloys: Recent Progress and Prospect, Advanced Engineering Materials 21 (2019) 1801215. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.201801215

[4] Z.-Y. Zhao, L. Li, P.-K. Bai, Y. Jin, L.-Y. Wu, J. Li, R.-G. Guan, H.-Q. Qu, The Heat Treatment Influence on the Microstructure and Hardness of TC4 Titanium Alloy Manufactured via Selective Laser Melting, Materials 11 (2018) 1318. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081318

[5] X. Liu, P. Chu, C. Ding, Surface modification of titanium, titanium alloys, and related materials for biomedical applications, Materials Science and Engineering: Reports 47 (2004) 49-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2004.11.001

[6] S. Ankem, H. Margolin, C. Greene, B. Neuberger, P. Oberson, Mechanical properties of alloys consisting of two ductile phases, Progress in Material Science 51 (2006) 632-709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2005.10.003

[7] E. Marin, A. Lanzutti, History of Metallic Orthopedic Materials, Metals 15 (2025) 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040378

[8] P. Bocchetta, L.-Y. Chen, J. D. C. Tardelli, A. C. dos Reis, F. Almeraya-Calderón, P. Leo, Passive Layers and Corrosion Resistance of Biomedical Ti-6Al-4V and -Ti Alloys, Coatings 11 (2021) 487. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11050487

[9] M. Kaur, K. Singh, Review on titanium and titanium based alloys as biomaterials for orthopaedic applications, Materials Science and Engineering: C 102 (2019) 844-862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.04.064

[10] S. Yang, Z. Jia, X. Song, J. He, X. Zhang, Development of Ti-Nb-Mo-Zr Alloys with Low Modulus and Excellent Plasticity for Biomedical Applications, Materials 19 (2026) 325. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19020325

[11] S. Prasad Nayak, N. Swarnkar, J. K. Kiran Kumar, Eco-friendly synthesis of reduced graphene oxide as sustainable catalyst for photodegradation of methylene blue, Inorganic Chemistry Communications 159 (2024) 111792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inoche.2023.111792

[12] K. M. Ganesh, S. S. M. Lis, S. P. Nayak, P. Das, S. Bhaskar, N. Reddy, Md. A. Hossain, C. B. Sanjeevi, S. S. Ramamurthy, B. N. Shivakiran Bhaktha, Surface plasmon resonance waveguides and their applications: insights from functional metal-dielectric-metal interfaces, in Nano-Engineering at Functional Interfaces for Multi-Disciplinary Applications, Elsevier, 2025, pp. 93-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-21691-6.00006-8

[13] G. K. Jayaprakash, B. Rikhari, P. Naik, Progress Nano-Hybrid Smart Coatings for Aerospace Applications, in Nano-hybrid Smart Coatings: Advancements in Industrial efficiency and Corrosion Resistance, A. Kumar, A. Thakur, Eds., ACS Publications, Washington, DC, USA, 2024, 267-278. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2024-1469.ch012

[14] B. Rikhari, K. Jayaprakash, P. Amaravathy, Progress in eco-friendly aerospace coatings: the future beyond chromates, Journal of Electrochemical Science and Engineering 16 (2026) 2775. https://doi.org/10.5599/jese.2775

[15] Z. B. Wang, H. X. Hu, Y. G. Zheng, W. Ke, Y. X. Qiao, Comparison of the corrosion behavior of pure titanium and its alloys in fluoride-containing sulfuric acid, Corrosion Science 103 (2016) 50-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2015.11.003

[16] J. Yang, Y. Song, K. Dong, E.-H. Han, Research progress on the corrosion behavior of titanium alloys, Corrosion Reviews 41 (2023) 5-20. https://doi.org/10.1515/corrrev-2022-0031

[17] F. M. S. Soares, C. N. Elias, E. S. Monteiro, M. E. R. Coimbra, A. I. C. Santana, Galvanic Corrosion of Ti Dental Implants Coupled to CoCrMo Prosthetic Component, International Journal of Biomaterials 2021 (2021) 1313343. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/1313343

[18] I. Golvano, I. Garcia, A. Conde, W. Tato, A. Aginagalde, Influence of fluoride content and pH on corrosion and tribocorrosion behaviour of Ti13Nb13Zr alloy in oral environment, Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 49 (2015) 186-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.05.008

[19] J. M. Calderon-Moreno, C. Vasilescu, S. I. Drob, S. Ivanescu, P. Osiceanu, P. Drob, M. Popa, S. Preda, E. Vasilescu, Microstructural and mechanical properties, surface and electrochemical characterisation of a new Ti-Zr-Nb alloy for implant applications, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 612 (2014) 398-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2014.05.159

[20] G. Ramírez, S. E. Rodil, H. Arzate, S. Muhl, J. J. Olaya, Niobium based coatings for dental implants, Applied Surface Science 257 (2011) 2555-2559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2010.10.021

[21] I. da Silva Vieira Marques, M. F. Alfaro, N. C. da Cruz, M. F. Mesquita, C. Takoudis, C. Sukotjo, M. T. Mathew, V. A. R. Barão, Tribocorrosion behavior of biofunctional titanium oxide films produced by micro-arc oxidation: Synergism and mechanisms, Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 60 (2016) 8-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.12.030

[22] S. B. Gabriel, J. V. P. Panaino, I. D. Santos, L. S. Araujo, P. R. Mei, L. H. de Almeida, C. A. Nunes, Characterization of a new beta titanium alloy, Ti-12Mo-3Nb, for biomedical applications, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 536 (2012) S208-S210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2011.11.035

[23] Y. Li, C. Yang, H. Zhao, S. Qu, X. Li, Y. Li, New Developments of Ti-Based Alloys for Biomedical Applications, Materials 7 (2014) 1709-1800. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma7031709

[24] L. K. Longhofer, A. Chong, N. M. Strong, P. H. Wooley, S.-Y. Yang, Specific material effects of wear-particle-induced inflammation and osteolysis at the bone-implant interface: A rat model, Journal of Orthopaedic Translation 8 (2017) 5-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jot.2016.06.026

[25] H. Terheyden, N. P. Lang, S. Bierbaum, B. Stadlinger, Osseointegration - communication of cells, Clinical Oral Implants Research 23 (2012) 1127-1135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0501.2011.02327.x

[26] M. Dziaduszewska, A. Zieliński, Structural and Material Determinants Influencing the Behavior of Porous Ti and Its Alloys Made by Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Biomedical Applications, Materials 14 (2021) 712. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040712

[27] B. Rikhari, B. E. A. Rani, Sustainable corrosion protection of aluminium alloys using a bio-based carbohydrate inhibitor, Surface & Coatings Technology 513 (2025) 132475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2025.132475

[28] S. M. Vignolo, D. M. Roth, L. Wu, J. Cosgrove, L. E. Bertassoni, Strategies for craniofacial tissue engineering: innovations for scalable bone regeneration, Plastic and Aesthetic Research 12 (2025) 20. https://doi.org/10.20517/2347-9264.2025.09

[29] D. F. Williams, On the mechanisms of biocompatibility, Biomaterials 29 (2008) 2941-2953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.04.023

[30] T. Ogawa, M. Hirota, R. Shibata, T. Matsuura, K. Komatsu, J. Saruta, W. Att, The 3D theory of osseointegration: material, topography, and time as interdependent determinants of bone-implant integration, International Journal of Implant Dentistry 11 (2025) 49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40729-025-00639-1

[31] R. Agarwal, A. J. García, Biomaterial strategies for engineering implants for enhanced osseointegration and bone repair, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 94 (2015) 53-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2015.03.013

[32] J. C. Keller, C. M. Stanford, J. P. Wightman, R. A. Draughn, R. Zaharias, Characterizations of titanium implant surfaces. III, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research 28 (1994) 939-946. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.820280813

[33] M. M. Gentleman, E. Gentleman, The role of surface free energy in osteoblast-biomaterial interactions, International Materials Reviews 59 (2014) 417-429. https://doi.org/10.1179/1743280414Y.0000000038

[34] M. Jackson, R. R. Boyer, Titanium and its Alloys: Processing, Fabrication and Mechanical Performance, in Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering, R. Blockley, W. Shyy, Eds., Wiley, Chichester, UK, 2010, eae199. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470686652.eae199

[35] E. O. Ezugwu, Z. M. Wang, Titanium alloys and their machinability, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 68 (1997) 262-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(96)00030-1

[36] R. S. Revuru, N. R. Posinasetti, Venkata Ramana VSN, Amrita. M, Application of cutting fluids in machining of titanium alloys, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 91 (2017) 2477-2498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-9883-7

[37] S. Lorenzi, L. Nani, T. Persico, M. Lombardi, F. Sarasini, C. Sergi, M. Cabrini, A comparative study on the corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-4V produced via material extrusion and other additive manufacturing technologies, npj Materials Degradation 10 (2026) 32. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41529-026-00745-4

[38] P. G. Esteban, L. Bolzoni, E. M. Ruiz-Navas, E. Gordo, PM processing and characterisation of Ti-7Fe low cost titanium alloys, Powder Metallurgy 54 (2011) 242-252. https://doi.org/10.1179/174329009X457063

[39] M. Swapna Sai, V. Dhinakaran, K. P. Manoj Kumar, V. Rajkumar, B. Stalin, T. Sathish, A systematic review of effect of different welding process on mechanical properties of grade 5 titanium alloy, Materials Today: Proceedings 21 (2020) 948-953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.09.027

[40] H. Zhao, S. Zhang, H. Chen, Y. Li, J. Miao, C. Chang, Y. Chang, Methods to Improve TIG Welding Efficiency, Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals 77 (2024) 2231-2245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-024-03323-x

[41] J. Xu, Z. Chang, H. Li, J. Liu, M. Yang, Effect of welding heat input on the corrosion behavior of TA10 titanium alloy welded pipe joints, Corrosion Science 255 (2025) 113083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2025.113083

[42] I. Watanabe, M. Woldu, K. Watanabe, T. Okabe, Effect of casting method on castability of titanium and dental alloys, Journal of Material Science: Materials in Medicine 11 (2000) 547-553. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008972018025

[43] D. Pani, A. Chattree, J. Gupta, S. S. Nene, J. Singh, Mechanical and Corrosion Properties of Novel -Ti-Rich Compositionally Complex Alloys in the As-Cast State, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 35 (2026) 10202-10217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-025-12382-0

[44] M. Zare, M.A. Mostafaei, Intermediate annealing of severely deformed pure titanium by multi-directional forging: Effect on mechanical properties and microstructure, Materials Science and Engineering: A 927 (2025) 147998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2025.147998

[45] B. K. Gonfa, M. G. Jiru, E. A. Esleman, Effect of powder metallurgy parameters on microstructure, mechanical, and bio-corrosion properties of Mg-alloys for biodegradable orthopedic implants, Scientific Reports 16 (2026) 4925. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35078-4

[46] B. G. Yashwanth Kumar, R. Lokesh Kumar, R. Vaira Vignesh, M. Govindaraju, G. Suganya Priyadharshini, A. Baghad, Microstructural Evolution and Bio-corrosion Characteristics of Cold-Rolled Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Fabricated Through Selective Laser Melting for Implant Applications, JOM 76 (2024) 5958-5980. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-024-06810-0

[47] B. Deng, Y. Dai, J. Lin, D. Zhang, Effect of Rolling Treatment on Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Corrosion Properties of WE43 Alloy, Materials 15 (2022) 3985. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15113985

[48] M. S. Gadala, J. Wang, Simulation of metal forming processes with finite element methods, International Journal of Numerical Methods in Engineering 44 (1999) 1397-1428. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0207(19990410)44:10<1397::AID-NME496>3.0.CO;2-3

[49] A. Chamanfar, M.-F. Huang, T. Pasang, M. Tsukamoto, W. Z. Misiolek, Microstructure and mechanical properties of laser welded Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al (Ti1023) titanium alloy, Journal of Materials Research and Technology 9 (2020) 7721-7731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.04.028

[50] A. H. Awad, A. W. Abdelghany, M. Jaskari, A. Järvenpää, M. A.-H. Gepreel, A comprehensive evaluation of cost-effective forged and aged -type Ti-14Mn-Zr alloys with variable Zr content for biomedical implant applications, Journal of Materials Research and Technology 37 (2025) 3125-3141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.06.224

[51] S. Djurović, D. Lazarević, M. Mišić, B. Stojčetović, M. Blagojević, S. Biočanin, 3D Printing Technologies: Process, Materials, Advantages, Disadvantages and Application, in: New Trends of Engineering Research 2024, N. Mitrovic, G. Mladenovic, A. Mitrovic, Eds., Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 2025, 353-370. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-78635-8_28

[52] Y. Li, D. Jiang, R. Zhu, C. Yang, L. Wang, L.-C. Zhang, Revolutionizing medical implant fabrication: advances in additive manufacturing of biomedical metals, International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing 7 (2025) 022002. https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/ad92cc

[53] Y. Gao, W. Jiang, D. Zeng, X. Liang, C. Ma, W. Xiao, Additive manufacturing of titanium alloys for biomedical applications, Review of Materials Research 1 (2025) 100011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revmat.2025.100011

[54] T.-S. Jang, D. Kim, G. Han, C.-B. Yoon, H.-D. Jung, Powder based additive manufacturing for biomedical application of titanium and its alloys, Biomedical Engineering Letters 10 (2020) 505-516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13534-020-00177-2

[55] Y. J. Liu, H. L. Wang, S. J. Li, S. G. Wang, W. J. Wang, W. T. Hou, Y. L. Hao, R. Yang, L. C. Zhang, Compressive and fatigue behavior of beta-type titanium porous structures fabricated by electron beam melting, Acta Materialia 126 (2017) 58-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.12.052

[56] X. Lu, X. Lin, M. Chiumenti, M. Cervera, J. Li, L. Ma, L. Wei, Y. Hu, W. Huang, Finite element analysis and experimental validation of the thermomechanical behavior in laser solid forming of Ti-6Al-4V, Additive Manufacturing 21 (2018) 30-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.02.003

[57] M. Ghasempour-Mouziraji, J. Lagarinhos, D. Afonso, R. Alves de Sousa, A review study on metal powder materials and processing parameters in Laser Metal Deposition, Optics & Laser Technology 170 (2024) 110226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2023.110226

[58] J. S. Keist, T. A. Palmer, Role of geometry on properties of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V structures fabricated using laser based directed energy deposition, Materials Design 106 (2016) 482-494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.05.045

[59] G. Piscopo, E. Atzeni, A. Saboori, A. Salmi, An Overview of the Process Mechanisms in the Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition, Applied Sciences 13 (2022) 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010117

[60] Y. Zhang, S. Shen, H. Li, Y. Hu, Review of in situ and real-time monitoring of metal additive manufacturing based on image processing, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 123 (2022) 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10178-3

[61] I. Milošev, P. Rodič, B. Kapun, D. Sačer, A. Nair, D. Kramar, A. Jeromen, E. Govekar, Composition, microstructure and corrosion resistance of DED-LB additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V alloy: Comparison with wrought alloy, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 1033 (2025) 181280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.181280

[62] N. Bastola, M. P. Jahan, N. Rangasamy, C. S. Rakurty, A Review of the Residual Stress Generation in Metal Additive Manufacturing: Analysis of Cause, Measurement, Effects, and Prevention, Micromachines 14 (2023) 1480. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14071480

[63] M. Ghasempour-Mouziraji, D. Afonso, B. Nemati, R. Alves de Sousa, Directed Energy Deposition: A Scientometric Study and Its Practical Implications, Metrics 2 (2025) 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/metrics2030014

[64] C. Gao, C. Wang, H. Jin, Z. Wang, Z. Li, C. Shi, Y. Leng, F. Yang, H. Liu, J. Wang, Additive manufacturing technique-designed metallic porous implants for clinical application in orthopedics, RSC Advances 8 (2018) 25210-25227. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8RA04815K

[65] A. Simchi, F. Petzoldt, T. Hartwig, S. B. Hein, B. Barthel, L. Reineke, Microstructural development during additive manufacturing of biomedical grade Ti-6Al-4V alloy by three-dimensional binder jetting: material aspects and mechanical properties, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 127 (2023) 1541-1558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-11661-1

[66] I. Dashtgerd, A. Cahoon, N. Rasooli, M. Hemmati, M. Khademitab, S. M. Saghaian, S. E. Saghaian, M. Vaicik, M. Daly, A. Mostafaei, Fabrication of porous Ni-Ti shape memory alloy via binder jet additive manufacturing and solid-state sintering, Materials Today Communications 41 (2024) 110633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.110633

[67] A. I. Nurhudan, S. Supriadi, Y. Whulanza, A. S. Saragih, Additive manufacturing of metallic based on extrusion process: A review, Journal of Manufacturing Processes 66 (2021) 228-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.04.018

[68] S. Lorenzi, G. D’Urso, L. Nani, M. Quarto, S. Fest-Santini, T. Pastore, Effect of the deposition strategy and endogenous defect pattern on the plastic deformability and the fracture mechanism of 316L stainless steel obtained using material extrusion, Engineering Failure Analysis 171 (2025) 109395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2025.109395

[69] C. Xu, J. Qi, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, L. Ren, Material extrusion additive manufacturing of Ti6Al4V bio-inspired bone implants with tunable Young’s modulus, Additive Manufacturing 78 (2023) 103884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103884

[70] B. Zhang, Y. Tang, B. Liu, T. Liu, Z. Nong, H. Zhang, Research Advances in the Corrosion Behavior and Underlying Mechanisms of Additively Manufactured Titanium Alloys, Crystals 16 (2026) 418. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16070418

[71] H. Hrir, A. Boudouma, A. Ghanam, O. Ait Layachi, O. Zakir, E. Khoumri, Historical and Emerging Trends in Titanium Implant Technologies: Surface Innovation and AI Integration, Biomedical Materials & Devices 4 (2026) 4300-4312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44174-025-00536-6

[72] E. H. Ledet, B. Liddle, K. Kradinova, S. Harper, Smart implants in orthopedic surgery, improving patient outcomes: a review, Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Health 5 (2018) 41-51. https://doi.org/10.2147/IEH.S133518

[73] L. Donyaparastlivari, A. Ibrahim, A smart hip implant with embedded multidirectional sensing and wireless load monitoring for enhanced orthopedic care, Biosensors & Bioelectronics: X 26 (2025) 100648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosx.2025.100648

[74] A. Ding, F. Tang, E. Alsberg, 4D Printing: A Comprehensive Review of Technologies, Materials, Stimuli, Design, and Emerging Applications, Chemical Reviews 125 (2025) 3663-3771. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.4c00070

[75] K. Iranshahi, J. Brun, T. Arnold, T. Sergi, U. C. Müller, Digital twins: Recent advances and future directions in engineering fields, Intelligent Systems with Applications 26 (2025) 200516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswa.2025.200516

[76] W. Huang, F. Yang, D. Jiang, L. Cao, G. Wang, Z. Tang, A. Liu, Surface texture processing methods of medical nitinol alloy and tribological characteristics: a review, Surface Topography 14 (2026) 013004. https://doi.org/10.1088/2051-672X/ae44b1

[77] R. Ampadi Ramachandran, V. A. R. Barão, D. Ozevin, C. Sukotjo, S. Pai P, M. Mathew, Early predicting tribocorrosion rate of dental implant titanium materials using random forest machine learning models, Tribology International 187 (2023) 108735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2023.108735

[78] D. B. Miracle, O. N. Senkov, A critical review of high entropy alloys and related concepts, Acta Materialia 122 (2017) 448-511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.08.081

[79] C. Tiwary, V. V. Gunjal, D. Banerjee, K. Chattopadhyay, Intermetallic eutectic alloys in the Ni-Al-Zr system with attractive high temperature properties, MATEC Web of Conferences 14 (2014) 01005. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20141401005

[80] A.A. Ibrahim, L.Z. Mohamed, M. El-Shazly, M. El Sherbiny, S. El-Hadad, Titanium-Based High-Entropy Alloys for Biomedical Applications: Recent Progress and Future Prospects, Egyptian Journal of Chemistry 69 (2026) 239-263. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejchem.2025.441803.12620

[81] J. Cheng, P. Yang, Q. Chen, X. Long, G. Chen, J. Xu, W. Gui, T. Wu, J. Hu, Bio-corrosion behaviors and bio-compatibilities of TiNbZrTa and TiNbZrTaMo high entropy alloys, Journal of Materials Research and Technology 32 (2024) 2268-2278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.08.083

[82] W.-R. Wang, W.-L. Wang, J.-W. Yeh, Phases, microstructure and mechanical properties of AlxCoCrFeNi high-entropy alloys at elevated temperatures, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 589 (2014) 143-152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.11.084

[83] X. Yan, H. Guo, W. Yang, S. Pang, Q. Wang, Y. Liu, P. K. Liaw, T. Zhang, Al0.3CrxFeCoNi high-entropy alloys with high corrosion resistance and good mechanical properties, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 860 (2021) 158436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.158436

[84] X. Yan, M. Li, H. Liu, K. Wang, J. Ju, Y. Yang, A Review on Microstructures, Corrosion Behavior, and Mechanical Properties of Al-Cr-Fe-Co-Ni High-Entropy Alloys, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 35 (2026) 2045-2064. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-025-11729-x

[85] C. Chen, H. Zhang, S. Hu, R. Wei, T. Wang, Y. Cheng, T. Zhang, N. Shi, F. Li, S. Guan, J. Jiang, Influences of laser surface melting on microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of dual-phase Cr-Fe-Co-Ni-Al high entropy alloys, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 826 (2020) 154100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.154100

[86] G. Popescu, B. Ghiban, C. A. Popescu, L. Rosu, R. Truscă, I. Carcea, V. Soare, D. Dumitrescu, I. Constantin, M. T. Olaru, B. A. Carlan, New TiZrNbTaFe high entropy alloy used for medical applications, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 400 (2018) 022049. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/400/2/022049

[87] T. Zirari, V. Trabadelo, A review on wear, corrosion, and wear-corrosion synergy of high entropy alloys, Heliyon 10 (2024) e25867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25867

[88] M. Sathishkumar, C. P. Kumar, S. S. S. Ganesh, M. Venkatesh, N. Radhika, M. Vignesh, A. Pazhani, Possibilities, performance and challenges of nitinol alloy fabricated by Directed Energy Deposition and Powder Bed Fusion for biomedical implants, Journal of Manufacturing Processes 102 (2023) 885-909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.08.024

[89] V. Singh, S. Patra, N. A. Murugan, D.-C. Toncu, A. Tiwari, Recent trends in computational tools and data-driven modeling for advanced materials, Materials Advances 3 (2022) 4069-4087. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2MA00067A

[90] R. Jha, N. Chakraborti, D. R. Diercks, A. P. Stebner, C. V. Ciobanu, Combined machine learning and CALPHAD approach for discovering processing-structure relationships in soft magnetic alloys, Computational Materials Science 150 (2018) 202-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2018.04.008

[91] V. Rodriguez-Galiano, M. Sanchez-Castillo, M. Chica-Olmo, M. Chica-Rivas, Machine learning predictive models for mineral prospectivity: An evaluation of neural networks, random forest, regression trees and support vector machines, Ore Geology Reviews 71 (2015) 804-818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.01.001

[92] A. Rahman, M. S. Hossain, A.-B. Siddique, Review: machine learning approaches for diverse alloy systems, Journal of Material Science 60 (2025) 12189-12221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-025-11154-4

[93] U. R. Kattner, The calphad method and its role in material and process development, Tecnologia em Metalurgia, Materias e Mineração 13 (2016) 3-15. https://doi.org/10.4322/2176-1523.1059

[94] G. Mundhra, H.-E. Peng, J.-W. Yeh, B.S. Murty, CALPHAD-guided design and experimental study on a novel Al-Ti-Nb alloy, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 990 (2024) 174288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.174288

[95] S. Gorsse, O. Senkov, About the Reliability of CALPHAD Predictions in Multicomponent Systems, Entropy 20 (2018) 899. https://doi.org/10.3390/e20120899

[96] K. Zhou, Additive Manufacturing Technology: Design, Optimization, and Modeling, Wiley, Weinheim, Germany, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527833931

[97] F. Kabirian, P. Mela, R. Heying, 4D Printing Applications in the Development of Smart Cardiovascular Implants, Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology 10 (2022) 873453. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2022.873453

[98] M. A. Yousefi, D. Rahmatabadi, M. Ahmadi, A. Bayati, M. Baniassadi, A. Laachachi, V. V. Silberschmidt, D. George, M. Baghani, 4D printing for minimally invasive biomedical applications: programmable smart materials for deployable devices, drug delivery, and tissue regeneration, Materials & Design 263 (2026) 115555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2026.115555

[99] L. Yu, S. Bin, Q. Yong, L. Meng, D. Wang, X. Gu, A review on 4D printing of NiTi smart alloy: principle, manufacturing and their applications, Materials & Design 263 (2026) 115628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2026.115628

[100] E. H. Ledet, B. Liddle, K. Kradinova, S. Harper, Smart implants in orthopedic surgery, improving patient outcomes: a review, Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Health 5 (2018) 41-51. https://doi.org/10.2147/IEH.S133518

[101] X.-D. Wu, Z. Zhao, D. Lu, H. Shao, D. Yang, Y. Zhou, Sensor-integrated hip and knee prostheses: advances, challenges, and future perspectives, Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology 13 (2026). https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2025.1721499

[102] A. M. Gordon, L. Vatti, M. A. Mont, Smart Knee Implants and Functional Outcome for Total Knee Arthroplasty, The Journal of Knee Surgery 38 (2025) 397-402. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2550-2187

[103] L. Petrini, F. Migliavacca, Biomedical Applications of Shape Memory Alloys, Journal of Metallurgy (2011). https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/501483

[104] J. Mohd Jani, M. Leary, A. Subic, M. A. Gibson, A review of shape memory alloy research, applications and opportunities, Materials & Design (1980-2015) 56 (2014) 1078-1113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.11.084

[105] Q. Li, L. Kong, S. Xu, H. Gong, Y. Li, Corrosion resistance and cytocompatibility of Ti-19Zr-11Nb-4Ta shape memory alloy for biomedical applications, Journal of Materials Research and Technology 26 (2023) 2352-2357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.08.077

[106] A. Karkadakattil, An identifiable physics-governed digital twin for surface degradation under coupled corrosion and wear, Surface Science and Technology 4 (2026) 36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44251-026-00136-6

[107] Y. Cai, Y. Xu, Y. Zhao, X. Ma, Atmospheric corrosion prediction: a review, Corrosion Reviews 38 (2020) 299-321. https://doi.org/10.1515/corrrev-2019-0100

[108] B. Denkena, M. Wichmann, M.-E. Eggers, C. K. Emonde, C. Hurschler, Approach to implant monitoring and data processing with digital implant lifecycle management, Scientific Reports 15 (2025) 15058. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-99975-w

[109] S. Ahn, J. Kim, S. Baek, C. Kim, H. Jang, S. Lee, Toward Digital Twin Development for Implant Placement Planning Using a Parametric Reduced-Order Model, Bioengineering 11 (2024) 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11010084

[110] W. M. Glinkowski, T. Gieroba, A. Śliwczyński, Digital Twins in Orthopedics and Trauma: Concepts, Emerging Evidence, and Barriers to Clinical Translation, Journal of Clinical Medicine 15 (2026) 4127. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm15114127

Conventional to advanced techniques: Progress in titanium alloys for biomedical applications

Review paper

Authors

DOI:

Keywords:

Abstract

Downloads

References

Downloads

Published

Issue

Section

License

How to Cite

Funding data

Most read articles by the same author(s)

clarivate

elsevier

links

Information