Next-generation electrochemical sensors and biosensors for paracetamol detection: emerging trends and future perspectives

Review paper

Authors

  • Santhanalakshmi Nagendran Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, 413310, Taiwan and Department of Applied Chemistry, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, 413310, Taiwan https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6779-3717
  • Jih-Hsing Chang Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, 413310, Taiwan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5397-0305
  • Mohanraj Kumar Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, 413310, Taiwan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4751-1188
  • Prakash Natrajan Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, 641407, India and Department of Centre for Research and Development, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, 641407, India https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6132-6560

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5599/jese.3230

Keywords:

Environmental monitoring, pharmaceutical pollutants, acetaminophen detection, electrochemical techniques, electrode surface modification

Abstract

Paracetamol (PCT), a widely used drug, is increasingly present in environmental and pharma­ceutical samples, raising the need for monitoring and control. Electrochemical sensors (ES) and electrochemical biosensors (EBS) have proven to be promising analytical methods for PCT detection. This review aims to provide a comprehensive comparison of ES and EBS for PCT detection, highlighting advances in electrode modification strategies, signal amplification approaches and biological recognition elements. The reported limits of detection range from the picomolar level (≈10 pM in immunosensors) to the micromolar range, varying with material design and recognition element. Carbon-based and metal/metal oxide materials enhance sensitivity through improved electron transfer and catalytic activity. Enzymatic and antibody-based sensors provide higher selectivity. The drawbacks of enzymatic and non-enzy­matic biosensors are low long-term stability, enzyme degradation, lack of interference testing in different sample matrices and lack of standardized protocols. Antibody- and DNA-based electrochemical platforms for PCT are under-analysed fields compared to nanoma­terial-driven approaches. This review also identifies current challenges, the need for stan­dar­dised protocols and key drawbacks of ES and EBS systems. Future perspectives for the deve­lopment of hybrid, portable, miniaturized, and real-time monitoring systems are further outlined.

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18-04-2026

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Vol. 16 (2026)

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Electroanalytical chemistry

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Copyright (c) 2026 Santhanalakshmi Nagendran, Jih-Hsing Chang, Mohanraj Kumar, Prakash Natrajan

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Next-generation electrochemical sensors and biosensors for paracetamol detection: emerging trends and future perspectives: Review paper. (2026). Journal of Electrochemical Science and Engineering, 16, Article 3230. https://doi.org/10.5599/jese.3230